Thus, the balance between BCMA and BAFF-R signaling may control the development of Tfh cells, indicating that BAFF/APRIL regulate autoimmunity not only via survival and differentiation of B cell but also via growth of Tfh cells

Thus, the balance between BCMA and BAFF-R signaling may control the development of Tfh cells, indicating that BAFF/APRIL regulate autoimmunity not only via survival and differentiation of B cell but also via growth of Tfh cells. Open in a separate window Fig. strong class=”kwd-title” Keywords: BAFF, APRIL, B cells, Tfh cells, Autoimmune diseases Background Systemic autoimmune diseases are pathologically characterized by immune complexes consisting of antigens, the activation of dendritic cells and autoreactive T cells, and the overproduction of autoantibodies secreted from activated B cells, which cause severe inflammation in various organs [1]. Even though survival of patients with autoimmune diseases has improved over the past 50?years with conventional LY2940680 (Taladegib) treatments such as immunosuppressants and corticosteroids, these drugs are limited by inefficacy and intolerance in some patients. Since several autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV) remain an important cause of mortality and morbidity, innovative therapeutic approaches need to be developed. B cells play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases not only by generating pathogenic autoantibodies but also by modulating immune responses via production of cytokines and chemokines [2]. The potential efficacy of B cell depletion therapy has been reported in several autoimmune diseases. Rituximab, a chimeric anti-CD20 antibody, eliminates CD20-expressing pre-B and mature B cells through antibody- and complement-dependent cytotoxic activities [3]. In Japan, rituximab is usually approved for clinical use in child years refractory nephrotic syndrome and AAV such as granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA) and microscopic polyangiitis (MPA). Despite anticipations, large randomized controlled clinical trials of rituximab for non-renal and renal SLE (EXPLORER and LUNAR, respectively) did not achieve the primary goal [4, 5]. In addition, adverse reactions such as hepatitis B computer virus reactivation, opportunistic infections, malignancies, and inefficacy in AAV patients who were treated with rituximab have been reported in a Japanese cohort (RiCRAV) [6]. Currently, the TNF family ligands, B cell-activating factor (BAFF), a proliferation-inducing ligand (APRIL), and those receptors (BAFF receptor (BAFF-R), transmembrane activator and calcium modulator and cytophilin ligand interactor (TACI), B cell maturation antigen (BCMA), and proteoglycans) are found to play a prominent role in the pathogenesis of and are known as the potential therapeutic target for autoimmune diseases. In this review, we spotlight the recent advance in the BAFF/APRIL-targeted therapy in systemic autoimmune diseases. Pathological significance of the conversation between B cells and Tfh cells Disturbances of T cell and B cell functions are involved in the development of autoimmune diseases [2, 7C11]. Activated B cells function as potent antigen-presenting cells and activate autoreactive T cells. The expression of co-stimulatory molecules, such as CD40 and CD80, is enhanced on B cells in autoimmune diseases such as SLE and is involved in the interactive activation with surrounding immunocompetent cells including autoreactive T cells [8, 9]. In addition, RNA- or DNA-containing autoantigens co-ligate B cell receptors (BCRs) and Toll-like receptor (TLR)-7/9, leading to strong activation, proliferation, and differentiation of autoreactive B cells [12]. In SLE, autoantibodies produced by autoreactive B cells form immune complexes that deposit in tissues, leading to prolonged inflammation and organ damage. Furthermore, it is well known that the number of memory B cells and plasmablasts correlate with disease LY2940680 (Taladegib) activity in SLE [13C15]. We reported previously that this proportions of CD19+IgD? CD27+ class-switched memory B cells and CD19+IgD?CD27? effector memory B cells tended to be higher in the peripheral blood of refractory SLE patients than in that of the control [16C18]. In contrast, B regulatory (Breg) cells, which produce interleukin (IL)-10 and transforming growth factor- (TGF-) and suppress effector T cells, are defective in patients with SLE [19]. The differentiation of CD4+ T helper cells into functionally distinct helper T subsets is critical for the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases [20, 21], especially since the active involvement of T helper (Th) 17 and T follicular helper (Tfh) cells and the LY2940680 (Taladegib) dysfunction of T regulatory (Treg) cells have been reported [20, 22C27]. Among these subsets, the Tfh cells have emerged.In Japan, rituximab is approved for clinical use in childhood refractory nephrotic syndrome and AAV such as granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA) and microscopic polyangiitis (MPA). autoimmune diseases. Therefore, objective markers that can predict the effect of BAFF/APRIL-blocking agents could be valuable to the precision medicine linked clinically and to cost-effective therapy. strong class=”kwd-title” Keywords: BAFF, APRIL, B cells, Tfh cells, Autoimmune diseases Background Systemic autoimmune diseases are pathologically characterized by immune complexes consisting of antigens, the activation of dendritic cells and autoreactive T cells, and the overproduction of autoantibodies secreted from activated B cells, which cause severe inflammation in various organs [1]. Although the survival of patients with autoimmune diseases has improved over the past 50?years with conventional treatments such as immunosuppressants and corticosteroids, these drugs are limited by inefficacy and intolerance in some patients. Since several autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV) remain an important cause of mortality and morbidity, innovative therapeutic approaches need to be developed. B cells play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases LY2940680 (Taladegib) not only by producing pathogenic autoantibodies but also by modulating immune responses via production of cytokines and chemokines [2]. The potential efficacy of B cell depletion therapy has been reported in several autoimmune diseases. Rituximab, a chimeric anti-CD20 antibody, eliminates CD20-expressing pre-B and mature B cells through antibody- and complement-dependent cytotoxic activities [3]. In Japan, rituximab is approved for clinical use in childhood refractory nephrotic syndrome and AAV such as granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA) and microscopic polyangiitis (MPA). Despite expectations, large randomized controlled clinical trials of rituximab for non-renal and renal SLE (EXPLORER and LUNAR, respectively) did not achieve the primary goal [4, 5]. In addition, adverse reactions such as hepatitis B virus reactivation, opportunistic infections, malignancies, and inefficacy in AAV patients who were treated with rituximab have been reported in a Japanese cohort (RiCRAV) [6]. Currently, the TNF family ligands, B cell-activating factor (BAFF), a proliferation-inducing ligand (APRIL), and those receptors (BAFF receptor (BAFF-R), transmembrane activator and calcium modulator and cytophilin ligand interactor (TACI), B cell maturation antigen (BCMA), and proteoglycans) are found to play a prominent role in the pathogenesis of and are known as the potential therapeutic target for autoimmune diseases. In this review, we highlight the recent advance in the BAFF/APRIL-targeted therapy in systemic autoimmune diseases. Pathological significance of the interaction between B cells and Tfh cells Disturbances of T cell and B cell functions are involved in the development of autoimmune diseases [2, 7C11]. Activated B cells function as potent antigen-presenting cells and activate autoreactive T cells. The expression of co-stimulatory molecules, such as CD40 and CD80, is enhanced on B cells in autoimmune diseases such as SLE and is involved in the interactive activation with surrounding immunocompetent cells including autoreactive T cells [8, 9]. In addition, RNA- or DNA-containing autoantigens co-ligate B cell receptors (BCRs) and Toll-like receptor (TLR)-7/9, leading to robust activation, proliferation, and differentiation of autoreactive B cells [12]. In SLE, autoantibodies produced by autoreactive B cells form immune complexes that deposit in tissues, leading to persistent inflammation and organ damage. Furthermore, it is well known that the number of memory B cells and plasmablasts correlate with disease activity in SLE [13C15]. We reported previously that the proportions of CD19+IgD?CD27+ class-switched memory B cells and CD19+IgD?CD27? effector memory B cells tended to be higher in the peripheral blood of refractory SLE patients than in that of the control [16C18]. In contrast, B regulatory (Breg) cells, which produce interleukin (IL)-10 and transforming growth factor- (TGF-) and suppress effector T cells, are defective in LY2940680 (Taladegib) patients with SLE [19]. The differentiation of CD4+ T helper cells into functionally distinct helper T subsets is critical for the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases [20, 21], especially since the active involvement of T helper (Th) 17 and T follicular helper (Tfh) cells and the dysfunction of T regulatory (Treg) cells have been reported [20, 22C27]. Among these subsets, the Tfh cells have emerged as a critical regulator of autoimmunity [22]. The Tfh cells provide B cell help by promoting the class switching of B cells and are defined by the expression of the master regulator Bcl6 and effector cytokine IL-21, along with key surface molecules, such as PD-1, CXCR5, CD40L, and ICOS [22, 28]. The CXCR5 expression allows Tfh cells to migrate from the T cell zone to the B cell follicle where they localize KAT3B in the germinal center (GC) and mediate B cell help via cell-cell contact using the co-stimulatory molecules CD40L and ICOS [22]. Thus, B-Tfh cell interaction is necessary for autoantibody production. In mice, the excessive activity of Tfh cells induces hyperactive GC formation and autoantibody production, leading to a SLE-like phenotype [29, 30]. While we and others have reported the mechanism of Tfh differentiation, the exact role.